Document Type : Original Article
Authors
1 Associate Professor at Department of Sports Sciences, Faculty of Sports Sciences, University of Birjand, Birjand, Iran.
2 Professor at Department of Sports Sciences, Faculty of Sports Sciences, University of Birjand, Birjand, Iran.
3 MSc in Exercise Physiology, Faculty of Sports Sciences, University of Birjand, Iran.
4 PhD students in Exercise Physiology, Faculty of Sports Sciences, University of Birjand, Iran.
Abstract
Extended Absract
Background and Aim: Physical activity and the use of antioxidant supplements are considered effective strategies for improving the balance between oxidative and antioxidative stress, thereby enhancing physical performance (19). In recent years, several pharmacological and medical studies have identified garlic, as a natural substance, has antioxidant properties (20). Due to these properties, garlic may help counteract the harmful effects of oxidative stress caused by various diseases and reduce indicators of cell membrane damage (19).
Given the increasing interest in natural and cost-effective sources of antioxidants for promoting health, further research in this area is warranted. Therefore, the aim of the present study is to examine the effects of garlic supplementation on serum glutathione levels and selected markers of cellular damage in inactive individuals following a session of exhaustive exercise.
Materials and Methods: This semi-experimental study was conducted on a statistical population comprising male students from Birjand University. All participants were healthy, physically inactive (i.e., had not engaged in regular physical activity for at least one year prior to the study), and non-smokers. A total of 10 volunteers (mean age: 25.6 ± 2.6 years) were recruited through public announcements. The study employed a counterbalanced crossover design, in which all participants received both the garlic supplement and the placebo in separate phases. Each participant attended three laboratory sessions. During the first session, after signing an informed consent form and completing a general health and demographic questionnaire, anthropometric characteristics were measured. These included weight, height, body mass index (BMI) (assessed via a body composition analyzer), and body fat percentage, which was estimated using skinfold measurements at three sites (thigh, triceps, abdomen, all on the right side) and calculated using a standard three-point formula (28).
In general, after the first session, in the second and third sessions (test sessions) which were conducted two weeks apart, a blood sample was initially taken from the brachial vein in the sitting position (all initial samplings were performed at 8 AM in the fasting state). Then, the supplement or placebo was consumed once a day by the participants (1000 mg capsule containing garlic powder or flour as placebo) and after two weeks, they performed the Bruce exhausting activity (29, 30). In this study, two blood samples, each of five milliliters, were taken from the brachial vein of the participants in the sitting position in the fasting state, such that one blood sample was taken before taking the supplement; second stage of blood sampling for glutathione immediately after exhaustive exercise and for cell damage markers 24 h after exercise was conducted. Blood samples were analyzed for serum glutathione and markers of cell damage, including creatine kinase (CK) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH).Findings: As shown in Table 2, there were no statistically significant differences in baseline characteristics (age, weight, body fat percentage, and BMI) among the participants (p>0.05), indicating homogeneity of the sample.
According to the statistical results in Table 1, garlic supplementation significantly affected the serum glutathione response. Following exhaustive exercise, serum glutathione levels decreased significantly more in the garlic group compared to the placebo group (p=0.001).
On the other hand, the statistical results of the data showed that the LDH level both the garlic and placebo groups showed a significant increase post-exercise compared to pre-exercise levels (p=0.001); however, the between-group difference was not statistically significant (p=0.07). Similarly, CK levels also increased significantly after exercise in both groups (p=0.001), but the increase was not significantly different between the garlic and placebo groups (p=0.06). These findings indicate that garlic consumption did not prevent the post-exercise rise in CK levels, suggesting that the increase was primarily due to the exhaustive exercise protocol itself (Table 1).
Conclusion: The present study indicates that acute garlic supplementation, likely due to its sulfur-containing compounds, may activate enzymes involved in glutathione synthesis and metabolism, thereby influencing the antioxidant response. Specifically, garlic may enhance glutathione utilization in response to exhaustive exercise, potentially through the activation of glutathione peptide metabolism.
Ethical considerations: All ethical principles have been considered in this article. Participants were informed about the purpose of the study and its implementation stages. They were also assured of the confidentiality of their information and could leave the study at any time and, if they wish, the results of the study will be made available to them. Written informed consent was obtained from the participants.
Compliance with ethical guidelines: The authors of this article adhere to ethical rules and standards at all stages of the research, from design to publication of the article, in order to maintain scientific integrity, prevent fraud, and maintain scientific credibility.
Funding: This research has not received any funding from government, public, commercial, or non-profit funding organizations.
Conflict of interest: The authors declare that they have no conflicts
Keywords
2. Magherini F, Fiaschi T, Marzocchini R, Mannelli M, Gamberi T, Modesti PA, Modesti A. Oxidative stress in exercise training: The involvement of inflammation and peripheral signals. Free Radical Research. 2019;53(11-12):1155-65. https://doi.org/10.1080/10715762.2019.1697438
3. Bortolotti M, Polito L, Battelli MG, Bolognesi A. Xanthine oxidoreductase: One enzyme for multiple physiological tasks. Redox Biology. 2021;41:101882. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.redox.2021.101882
4. Silva ANd, Lima LCF. The association between physical exercise and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. Journal of Sports Medicine & Doping Studies. 2015;10:2161-0673. http://doi.org/10.4172/2161-0673.1000152
5. Block G, Jensen CD, Morrow JD, Holland N, Norkus EP, Milne GL, et al. The effect of vitamins C and E on biomarkers of oxidative stress depends on baseline level. Free Radical Biology and Medicine. 2008;45(4):377-84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2008.04.005
6. Sen CK. Antioxidants in exercise nutrition. Sports Medicine. 2001;31(13):891-908. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200131130-00001
7. Mirunalini S, Krishnaveni M, Ambily V. Effects of raw garlic (Allium sativum) on hyperglycemia in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Pharmacology Online. 2011;2:968-74. https://doi.org/10.1080/16546628.2017.1377571
8. Khan AA, Allemailem KS, Alhumaydhi FA, Gowder SJ, Rahmani AH. The biochemical and clinical perspectives of lactate dehydrogenase: an enzyme of active metabolism. Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Formerly Current Drug Targets-Immune, Endocrine & Metabolic Disorders). 2020;20(6):855-68. https://doi.org/10.2174/1871530320666191230141110
9. Soleymani S, Tofighi A, Babaei Bonab S. Effects of an exhaustive exercise before and after aerobic training along with dietary spirulina supplementation on oxidative stress in inactive obese men. Journal of Applied Health Studies in Sport Physiology. 2018;5(2):36-44. https://doi.org/10.22049/jassp.2019.26544.1214
10. Sindhi V, Gupta V, Sharma K, Bhatnagar S, Kumari R, Dhaka N. Potential applications of antioxidants–A review. Journal of Pharmacy Research. 2013;7(9):828-35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jopr.2013.10.001
11. Nocella C, Cammisotto V, Pigozzi F, Borrione P, Fossati C, D’Amico A, et al. Impairment between oxidant and antioxidant systems: Short-and long-term implications for athletes’ health. Nutrients. 2019;11(6):1353. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11061353
12. Sener G, Sehirli AÖ, IPçi Y, Çetinel S, Cikler E, Gedik N. Chronic nicotine toxicity is prevented by aqueous garlic extract. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition. 2005;60:77-86. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11130-005-5103-x
13. Zhu S, Yang W, Lin Y, Du C, Huang D, Chen S, et al. Antioxidant and anti-fatigue activities of selenium-enriched peptides isolated from Cardamine violifolia protein hydrolysate. Journal of Functional Foods. 2021;79:104412. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jff.2021.104412
14. Karimzadeh H, Kazemi N. The effect of one session of exhaustive swimming training on lactate dehydrogenase, creatine kinase, and lactate of elite male swimmers. Report of Health Care. 2019;5(1):17-24. [In Persian]
15. Evans WJ. Vitamin E, vitamin C, and exercise. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2000;72(2):647S-52S. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/72.2.647S
16. Brancaccio P, Maffulli N, Limongelli FM. Creatine kinase monitoring in sport medicine. British Medical Bulletin. 2007;81-82(1):209-30. https://doi.org/10.1093/bmb/ldm014
17. Azizbeigi K, Qeysari SF. The effects of progressive resistance training on malondialdehyde concentration and superoxide dismutase enzyme activity in inactive elderly women. Payavard Salamat. 2019;13(2):151-9. [In Persian]
18. Fielding R, Meydani M. Exercise, free radical generation, and aging. Aging Clinical and Experimental Research. 1997;9(1-2):12-8. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03340124
19. Powers SK, Jackson MJ. Exercise-Induced Oxidative Stress: Cellular Mechanisms and Impact on Muscle Force Production. Physiological Reviews. 2008;88(4):1243-76. https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00031.2007
20. Durak I, Aytaç B, Atmaca Y, Devrim E, Avcı A, Erol Ç, Oral D. Effects of garlic extract consumption on plasma and erythrocyte antioxidant parameters in atherosclerotic patients. Life Sciences. 2004;75(16):1959-66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lfs.2004.04.015
21. Al-Numair KS. Hypocholesteremic and antioxidant effects of garlic (Allium sativum L.) extract in rats fed high cholesterol diet. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition. 2009;8(2):161-6. https://doi.org/10.3923/pjn.2009.161.166
22. Dhawan V, Jain S. Garlic supplementation prevents oxidative DNA damage in essential hypertension. Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry. 2005;275(1-2):85-94. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11010-005-0824-2
23. Filomeni G, Aquilano K, Rotilio G, Ciriolo MR. Reactive oxygen species-dependent c-Jun NH2-terminal kinase/c-Jun signaling cascade mediates neuroblastoma cell death induced by diallyl disulfide. Cancer Research. 2003;63(18):5940-9.
24. Su Q-S, Tian Y, Zhang J-G, Zhang H. Effects of allicin supplementation on plasma markers of exercise-induced muscle damage, IL-6 and antioxidant capacity. European Journal of Applied Physiology. 2008;103(3):275-83. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-008-0699-5
25. Benkeblia N. Free-radical scavenging capacity and antioxidant properties of some selected onions (Allium cepa L.) and garlic (Allium sativum L.) extracts. Brazilian Archives of Biology and Technology. 2005;48:753-9. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1516-89132005000600011
26. Ghasemi E, Afzalpour M, Saghebjoo M. The effect of short-term supplementation of green tea on total antioxidant capacity and lipid peroxidation of young women after a session of intense resistance training. Journal of Isfahan Medical School. 2012;30(202):1276-67. [In Persian]
27. Esfahani FH, Asghari G, Mirmiran P, Azizi F. Reproducibility and relative validity of food group intake in a food frequency questionnaire developed for the Tehran Lipid and Glucose Study. Journal of Epidemiology. 2010;20(2):150-8. https://doi.org/10.2188/jea.je20090083
28. Eston RG, Reilly T. Kinanthropometry and exercise physiology laboratory manual: Routledge London, UK; 2001.
29. Jahangard sardrud A, Hamedi nia MR, Hosseini-Kakhk SAR, Jafari A, Salehzadeh k. Effect of short-term garlic extract supplementation on oxidative stress indices during rest and induced-exercise exhaustion in male soccer players. Iranian Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism. 2013;15(1):78-85. [In Persian]. http://ijem.sbmu.ac.ir/article-1-1413-en.html
30. Bruce R. Exercise testing of patients with coronary heart disease: principles and normal standards for evaluation. Annals of Clinical Research. 1971;3(6):323-32.
31. Ghadiri Soufi F, Aslanabadi N, Ahmadiasl N. The influence of regular exercise on the glutathione cycle components: antioxidant defense improvement against oxidative stress. Internal Medicine Today. 2011;16(4):0-0. [In Persian]
32. Ghanimati R, Ebrahim K, Salari B, Gholamian S, Haqi Rad L. The effect of endurance training and garlic consumption on serum glutathione and some indicators of cellular damage in inactive men in response to a session of stimulating activity. Sports Physiology and Physical Activity Journal. 2013;6(1). https://doi.org/10.48308/joeppa.2013.98651
33. Sáez GT, Bannister WH, Bannister JV. Free radicals and thiol compounds—the role of glutathione against free radical toxicity. Glutathione (1990): CRC Press; 2017. p. 237-54.
34. Choromańska B, Myśliwiec P, Dadan J, Maleckas A, Zalewska A, Maciejczyk M. Effects of age and gender on the redox homeostasis of morbidly obese people. Free Radical Biology and Medicine. 2021;175:108-20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2021.08.009
35. Asadi V, Azizbeigi K, Khosravi N, Hagh Nazari N. Effect of exercise training on omentin-1 and vaspin: comparison of continuous endurance, circuit resistance, and high intensity interval trainings in obese young men. The Scientific Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine. 2019;8(4):103-12. https://doi.org/10.22037/jrm.2019.111421.1980
36. Berzosa C, Cebrián I, Fuentes-Broto L, Gómez-Trullén E, Piedrafita E, Martínez-Ballarín E, et al. Acute exercise increases plasma total antioxidant status and antioxidant enzyme activities in untrained men. BioMed Research International. 2011;2011(1):540458. https://doi.org/10.1155/2011/540458
37. Williams CH. Lipoamide dehydrogenase, glutathione reductase, thioredoxin reductase, and mercuric ion reductase—a family of flavoenzyme transhydrogenases. Chemistry and Biochemistry of Flavoenzymes: CRC press; 2019. p. 121-211.
38. Ohaeri OC. Effect of garlic oil on the levels of various enzymes in the serum and tissue of streptozotocin diabetic Rats. Bioscience Reports. 2001;21(1):19-24. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1010425932561
39. Ohnishi ST, Ohnishi T. In vitro effects of aged garlic extract and other nutritional supplements on sickle erythrocytes. The Journal of Nutrition. 2001;131(3):1085S-92S. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/131.3.1085S
40. Askari M, Mozaffari H, Darooghegi Mofrad M, Jafari A, Surkan PJ, Amini MR, Azadbakht L. Effects of garlic supplementation on oxidative stress and antioxidative capacity biomarkers: a systematic review and meta‐analysis of randomized controlled trials. Phytotherapy Research. 2021;35(6):3032-45. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.7021
41. Hellsten Y, Apple FS, Sjödin B. Effect of sprint cycle training on activities of antioxidant enzymes in human skeletal muscle. Journal of Applied Physiology. 1996;81(4):1484-7. https://doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1996.81.4.1484
42. Wang L, Mimura K, Fujimoto S. Effects of black garlic supplementation on exercise-induced physiological responses. The Journal of Physical Fitness and Sports Medicine. 2012;1(4):685-94. https://doi.org/10.7600/jpfsm.1.685
43. Shahidi F, Kashef M, Mobaraki M. Effect of garlic extract on total serum creatine kinase activity following a single bout of exhaustive activity in active and inactive girls. National Sports Immunology Conference. 2016;2(43). [In Persian]
44. Bloomer RJ, Smith WA. Oxidative stress in response to aerobic and anaerobic power testing: influence of exercise training and carnitine supplementation. Research in Sports Medicine. 2009;17(1):1-16. https://doi.org/10.1080/15438620802678289
)