Document Type : Original Article
Authors
1 Ph.D. in Exercise Physiology, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, University of Kharazmi, Karaj, Iran.
2 Ph.D. student of Exercise Physiology, Department of Exercise Physiology, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, University of Guilan, Rasht, Iran
3 MSc, Young Research and Elite Club, Ghorveh Branch, Islamic Azad University, Ghorveh, Iran
Abstract
Background and Aim: In recent years, various methods of cryotherapy have been used to reduce intensive exercise-induced injuries and inflammation for fast and complete recovery as well as exercise capacity elevation. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of cold water immersion (CWI) following a Wushu specific training session on the anabolic/catabolic indices and cellular damages. Materials and Methods: Sixteen elite Wushu athletes from Kurdistan province (mean age: 19.17±2.80 years, weight: 77.37±8.30 kg, body fat: 10.25±30%) were selected as the subjects and performed a Wushu training session. During the recovery period, the subjects of the CWI group immersed in the cold water for 20 minutes, while control group rested passively in the same position. Blood samples were collected immediately before and after training and after recovery period. To analyze the data, analysis of variance with repeated measures and Bonferroni tests were applied at the significant level of p<0.05. Results: There were no significant changes in the level of Aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and Alanine aminotransferase (ALT) enzymes following a training session (p>0.05). The level of growth hormone, testosterone, and the testosterone/cortisol ratio increased significantly after training in both groups (p<0.05), while following the recovery period, testosterone level decreased only in the CWI group (p<0.05). Moreover, cortisol level decreased significantly after recovery period (p<0.05), but there was no significant difference between the two groups (p>0.05). Conclusion: The levels of anabolic hormones (growth hormone and testosterone) reduced by ICW following a Wushu training session; and it seems that the use of this method can attenuate exercise-induced positive responses and it may have long-term negative effects on athlete’s performance.
Keywords
Anttila, K., Mänttäri, S., & Järvilehto, M. (2008). Testosterone and Ca2+ regulation in skeletal muscle. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 29(10), 795-802.
Argus, C. K., Gill, N. D., Keogh, J. W., Hopkins, W. G., & Beaven, C. M. (2009). Changes in strength, power, and steroid hormones during a professional rugby union competition. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 23(5), 1583-1592.
Ascensão, A., Leite, M., Rebelo, A. N., Magalhäes, S., & Magalhäes, J. (2011). Effects of cold water immersion on the recovery of physical performance and muscle damage following a one-off soccer match. Journal of Sports Sciences, 29(3), 217-225.
Bailey, D., Erith, S., Griffin, P., Dowson, A., Brewer, D., Gant, N., & Williams, C. (2007). Influence of cold-water immersion on indices of muscle damage following prolonged intermittent shuttle running. Journal of Sports Sciences, 25(11), 1163-1170.
Bashiri, J., Gaeini, A., & Nikbakht, H. (2009). Simultaneous effect of talking creatine monohydrate and resistant practice on serum live enzyme activity of athletic men. Iranian Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism, 12(1), 42-47. [Persian]
Bolboli, L., Mirzaei, B., & Lotfi, N. (2017). Effect of various ambient temperatures on proinflammatory cytokines levels and oxidative stress index of cadet wrestlers. Journal of Practical Studies of Biosciences in Sport, 5(9), 21-30. [Persian]
Burger-Mendonca, M., Bielavsky, M., & Barbosa, F. (2008). Liver overload in Brazilian triathletes after half-ironman competition is related muscle fatigue. Ann Hepatol, 7(3), 245-248.
Cheng, A. J. (2018). Cooling down the use of cryotherapy for post-exercise skeletal muscle recovery. Temperature, 5(2), 1-3.
Chevion, S., Moran, D. S., Heled, Y., Shani, Y., Regev, G., Abbou, B., & Epstein, Y. (2003). Plasma antioxidant status and cell injury after severe physical exercise. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 100(9), 5119-5123.
Cinar, V., Cakmakci, O ,.Mogulkoc, R., & Baltaci, A. K. (2009). Effects of exhaustion and calcium supplementation on adrenocorticotropic hormone and cortisol levels in athletes. Biological Trace Element Research, 127(1), 1-5.
Costa Santos, W. O., Brito, C. J., Andrade Pinho Júnior, E., Nardelli Valido, C., Lacerda Mendes, E., Prado Nunes, M. A., & Franchini, E. (2012). Cryotherapy post-training reduces muscle damage markers in jiu-jitsu fighters. Journal of Human Sport and Exercise, 9(3), 629-3.
Filaire, E., Filaire, M., & Le Scanff, C. (2007). Salivary cortisol, heart rate and blood lactate during a qualifying trial and an official race in motorcycling competition. Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 47(4), 413-7.
Fonseca, L. B., Brito, C. J., Silva, R. J. S., Silva-Grigoletto, M. E., da Silva, W. M., & Franchini, E. (2016). Use of cold-water immersion to reduce muscle damage and delayed-onset muscle soreness and preserve muscle power in jiu-jitsu athletes. Journal of Athletic Training, 51(7), 540-549.
Halson, S. L., Quod, M. J., Martin, D. T., Gardner, A. S., Ebert, T. R., & Laursen, P. B. (2008). Physiological responses to cold water immersion following cycling in the heat. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance, 3(3), 331-346.
Ihsan, M., Watson, G., Lipski, M., & Abbiss, C. R. (2013). Influence of postexercise cooling on muscle oxygenation and blood volume changes. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 45(5), 876-882.
Karvinen, S. (2015). Acute and chronic effects of cold treatment on physiological variables and neuromuscular function during a short training period in men. Master’s Thesis, University of Jyväskylä, 35-65.
Kellmann, M. (2010). Preventing overtraining in athletes in high‐intensity sports and stress/recovery monitoring. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 20(s2), 95-102.
Kraemer, W. J., Spiering, B. A., Volek, J. S., Martin, G. J., Howard, R. L., Ratamess, N. A., Fragala, M. S. (2009). Recovery from a national collegiate athletic association division I football game: muscle damage and hormonal status. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 23(1), 2-10.
Leppaluoto, J., Lybeck, H., Virkkunen, P., Partanen, J., & Ranta, T. (1982). Effects of immersion in cold water on the plasma ACTH, GH, LH, and TSH concentrations in man. Circumpolar Health, 81, 601-602.
Manetta, J., Brun, J. F., Maimoun, L., Callis, A., Préfaut, C., & Mercier, J. (2002). Effect of training on the GH/IGF-I axis during exercise in middle-aged men: relationship to glucose homeostasis. American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism, 283(5), E929-E936.
Mirzaei, B., Lotfi, N., & Saeidi, P. (2011). The relationship between anthropometric parameters, body composition and explosive power in cadet wrestlers. Fiziceskoe Vospitanie Studentov, 6, 128-131.
Mohammadizadeh, M. A., Ghanbarzadeh, M., Habibi, A., Shakeryan, S., & Nikbakht, M. (2013). The effect of high intensity interval exercise in high/low temperatures on exercise-induced bronchoconstriction (EIB) in trained adolescent males. Tanaffos, 12(3), 29. [Persian]
Nazari ,Y., Mohamadimofrad, A., Nazari, A., Jamshidi, R., & Asjodi, F. (2014). Response of liver enzymes to acute aerobic exercise in sedentary human subjects. New York Science Journal, 7(4), 89-92.
Nemet, D., Meckel, Y., Bar-Sela, S., Zaldivar, F., Cooper, D. M., & Eliakim, A. (2009). Effect of local cold-pack application on systemic anabolic and inflammatory response to sprint-interval training: a prospective comparative trial. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 107(4), 411-7.
Pääkkönen, T., & Leppäluoto, J. (2002). Coldexposure and hormonal secretion: a review. International Journal of Circumpolar Health, 61(3), 265-276.
Rawson, E. S., & Persky, A. M. (2007). Mechanisms of muscular adaptations to creatine supplementation. International Sport Medicine Journal, 8(2), 43-53.
Roberts, L. A., Muthalib, M., Stanley, J., Lichtwark, G., Nosaka, K., Coombes, J. S., & Peake, J. M. (2015). Effects of cold water immersion and active recovery on hemodynamics and recovery of muscle strength following resistance exercise. American Journal of Physiology-Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology, 309(4), R389-R398.
Ruhi, G., Gaeini A. A., Kordi, M. R., Hedayati, M., & Zarkesh, M. (2016). The effect of cold water immersion after eccentric exercise on myogenic, inflammatory and muscle damage responses In FHL skeletal muscle in rats. Physiology of Sport and Physical Activity, 14(2), 1079-1090.
Schwarz, A. J., Brasel, J., Hintz, R. L., Mohan, S., & Cooper, D. (1996). Acute effect of brief low-and high-intensity exercise on circulating insulin-like growth factor (IGF) I, II, and IGF-binding protein-3 and its proteolysis in young healthy men. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 81(10), 3492-3497.
Shkurnikov, M., Donnikov, A., Akimov, E., Sakharov, D., & Tonevitsky, A. (2008). Free testosterone as marker of adaptation to medium-intensive exercise. Bulletin of Experimental Biology and Medicine, 146(3), 354-357.
Stokes, K., Nevill, M., Frystyk, J., Lakomy, H., & Hall, G. (2005). Human growth hormone responses to repeated bouts of sprint exercise with different recovery periods between bouts. Journal of Applied Physiology, 99(4), 1254-1261.
Tseng, C. Y., Lee, J. P., Tsai, Y. S., Lee, S. D., Kao, C. L., Liu, T. C., Kuo, C. H. (2013). Topical Cooling (Icing) Delays Recovery From Eccentric Exercise–Induced Muscle Damage. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 27(5), 1354-1361.
Versey, N. G., Halson, S. L., & Dawson, B. T. (2013). Water immersion recovery for athletes: effect on exercise performance and practical recommendations. Sports Medicine, 43(11), 1101-1130
Wilcock, I. M., Cronin, J. B., & Hing, W. A. (2006). Physiological response to water immersion. Sports Medicine, 36(9), 747-765.
Zak, R. B., Hassenstab, B., Zuehlke, L., Heesch, M., Shute, R., Laursen, T., & Slivka, D. (2018). Impact of local heating and cooling on skeletal muscle transcriptional response related to myogenesis and proteolysis. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 118(1), 101-109.
)